Improper Rational Integrals

Work in progress. This note is still being written and incomplete.

Improper Integrals

Let ff be continuous on [0,∞)[0, \infty). The improper integral of ff over [0,∞)[0, \infty) is

∫0∞f(x) dx=lim⁡b→∞∫0bf(x) dx\int_0^{\infty} f(x)\,\text{d}x = \lim_{b \to \infty} \int_0^b f(x)\,\text{d}x

provided the limit exists.

If ff is defined on all of R\mathbb{R}, the improper integral over (−∞,∞)(-\infty, \infty) is

∫−∞∞f(x) dx=lim⁡a→−∞∫a0f(x) dx+lim⁡b→∞∫0bf(x) dx\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x)\,\text{d}x = \lim_{a \to -\infty} \int_a^0 f(x)\,\text{d}x + \lim_{b \to \infty} \int_0^b f(x)\,\text{d}x

provided both limits exist.

Cauchy Principal Value

If ff is defined on all of R\mathbb{R}, the Cauchy principal value of the integral over (−∞,∞)(-\infty, \infty) is

P.V.∫−∞∞f(x) dx=lim⁡R→∞∫−RRf(x) dx\text{P.V.} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x)\,\text{d}x = \lim_{R \to \infty} \int_{-R}^{R} f(x)\,\text{d}x

provided the limit exists.

Examples:

  • P.V.∫−∞∞x dx=0\text{P.V.} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x\,\text{d}x = 0, but ∫−∞∞x dx\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x\,\text{d}x does not exist as an improper integral

Rational Functions

Let R(z)=P(z)Q(z)R(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)} where PP and QQ are polynomials with real coefficients of degrees mm and nn. Suppose

  • Q(x)≠0Q(x) \neq 0 for all x∈Rx \in \mathbb{R}
  • n≥m+2n \ge m + 2

If z1,z2,…,zkz_1, z_2, \ldots, z_k are the poles of RR in the upper half-plane, then

∫−∞∞P(x)Q(x) dx=2πi∑j=1kRes(PQ,zj)\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}\,\text{d}x = 2\pi i \sum_{j=1}^{k} \text{Res}\left(\frac{P}{Q}, z_j\right)

Under n≥m+2n \ge m + 2, the ordinary improper integral exists, so its value agrees with the principal value.

Examples:

  • ∫−∞∞dx(x2+1)(x2+4)=π6\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+1)(x^2+4)} = \frac{\pi}{6}
  • ∫−∞∞dx(x2+4)3=3π256\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+4)^3} = \frac{3\pi}{256}

Worked Examples

Improper Integral

Evaluate ∫0∞e−x dx\int_0^{\infty} e^{-x}\,\text{d}x.

∫0∞e−x dx=lim⁡b→∞(1−e−b)=1\int_0^{\infty} e^{-x}\,\text{d}x = \lim_{b \to \infty} \left(1 - e^{-b}\right) = 1

Principal Value Without Improper Integral

Show that P.V.∫−∞∞x dx=0\text{P.V.} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x\,\text{d}x = 0 but ∫−∞∞x dx\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x\,\text{d}x does not exist.

P.V.∫−∞∞x dx=lim⁡R→∞(R22−R22)=0\text{P.V.} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x\,\text{d}x = \lim_{R \to \infty} \left(\frac{R^2}{2} - \frac{R^2}{2}\right) = 0

The improper integral needs both limits to exist independently.

lim⁡b→∞∫0bx dx=lim⁡b→∞b22=∞\lim_{b \to \infty} \int_0^b x\,\text{d}x = \lim_{b \to \infty} \frac{b^2}{2} = \infty lim⁡a→−∞∫a0x dx=lim⁡a→−∞(−a22)=−∞\lim_{a \to -\infty} \int_a^0 x\,\text{d}x = \lim_{a \to -\infty} \left(-\frac{a^2}{2}\right) = -\infty

Neither limit is finite, so the improper integral does not exist.

The principal value ties both ends to the same RR, so the areas on either side of 00 cancel. Letting the ends move independently gives a different result. For the interval [−R,2R][-R, 2R]:

lim⁡R→∞∫−R2Rx dx=lim⁡R→∞4R2−R22=lim⁡R→∞3R22=∞\lim_{R \to \infty} \int_{-R}^{2R} x\,\text{d}x = \lim_{R \to \infty} \frac{4R^2 - R^2}{2} = \lim_{R \to \infty} \frac{3R^2}{2} = \infty

The value depends on how the ends approach ±∞\pm\infty, so no single value can be assigned to the integral.

Simple Poles

Show that ∫−∞∞dx(x2+1)(x2+4)=π6\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+1)(x^2+4)} = \frac{\pi}{6}.

Here m=0m = 0 and n=4≥m+2n = 4 \ge m + 2, and the denominator has no real roots. The poles in the upper half-plane are z=iz = i and z=2iz = 2i.

Res(R,i)=12i⋅(−1+4)=16i\text{Res}(R, i) = \frac{1}{2i \cdot (-1 + 4)} = \frac{1}{6i} Res(R,2i)=1(−4+1)⋅4i=−112i\text{Res}(R, 2i) = \frac{1}{(-4 + 1) \cdot 4i} = -\frac{1}{12i} ∫−∞∞dx(x2+1)(x2+4)=2πi(16i−112i)=π6\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+1)(x^2+4)} = 2\pi i \left(\frac{1}{6i} - \frac{1}{12i}\right) = \frac{\pi}{6}

Pole of Order 2

Show that ∫−∞∞dx(x2+1)2=π2\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+1)^2} = \frac{\pi}{2}.

The only pole in the upper half-plane is z=iz = i, of order 2.

Res(R,i)=lim⁡z→iddz(z+i)−2=lim⁡z→i−2(z+i)−3=−2(2i)3=14i\text{Res}(R, i) = \lim_{z \to i} \frac{\text{d}}{\text{d}z} (z+i)^{-2} = \lim_{z \to i} -2(z+i)^{-3} = -\frac{2}{(2i)^3} = \frac{1}{4i} ∫−∞∞dx(x2+1)2=2πi⋅14i=π2\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+1)^2} = 2\pi i \cdot \frac{1}{4i} = \frac{\pi}{2}

Pole of Order 3

Show that ∫−∞∞dx(x2+4)3=3π256\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+4)^3} = \frac{3\pi}{256}.

The only pole in the upper half-plane is z=2iz = 2i, of order 3.

Res(R,2i)=12!lim⁡z→2id2dz2(z+2i)−3=12⋅12(4i)5=61024 i\text{Res}(R, 2i) = \frac{1}{2!} \lim_{z \to 2i} \frac{\text{d}^2}{\text{d}z^2} (z+2i)^{-3} = \frac{1}{2} \cdot \frac{12}{(4i)^5} = \frac{6}{1024\, i} ∫−∞∞dx(x2+4)3=2πi⋅61024 i=3π256\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{\text{d}x}{(x^2+4)^3} = 2\pi i \cdot \frac{6}{1024\, i} = \frac{3\pi}{256}
Written by October 8, 2026 2 min read
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